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Oleoresin Capsicum
In the early 1980’s Zarc International, Inc.
introduced a proprietary “capsicum pepper technology” to be used as
a safe and effective non-lethal weapon by military and law enforcement.
“Capsicums” are chili peppers which occur in many varieties that
range from mild to hot. Capsicum encompasses twenty species and some 300
different varieties of pepper plants. “Oleoresin” is the industrial
extraction of the dried ripe fruits of capsicums and contains a complex
mixture of highly potent organic compounds. This section is devoted to
general information regarding Oleoresin Capsicum.
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OC – A breakthrough
After 70 years of Tear Gas and Chemical Agents
For years law enforcement agencies have used DM, CN and CS chemical
agents which have proven to be unreliable and counterproductive. Tearing and irritation
were not sufficient to stop driven and highly agitated individuals. Dissatisfaction with
the available tools and tear gas agents led law enforcement to search for an alternative
agent.
A search of early records reveals that pepper has been used at
various times during the past 2500 years as a weapon. The Chinese used what were called
"stink pots". They consisted of pepper burned in an oil, causing irritating and
suffocating smoke. The Japanese used finely ground pepper which was put in thin rice paper
pouches and thrown at the faces of their adversaries to temporarily blind them. The Indian
schools of martial arts, (which gave birth to many Far Eastern schools of hand-to-hand
combat through Indian Buddhist missionaries) such as Kalaripayat, Vajramushti, Marman and
Kara-hatse (the forefather of Karate), are among those who have applied forms of pepper as
a combative tool.
It was black pepper, primarily, that inspired most of man’s
great explorations of the Middle Ages, including the discovery of America. Black pepper
started America’s trade with the Orient and played an important role in the early
days of the United States. On June 23, 1672, the first colonial American took an active
part in spice trading: Boston-born Elihu Yale, later to give his name and wealth to the
renowned University, arrived in Madras, India, as a clerk of the British East India
Company. There he established contacts upon which he built a fortune in spices. In 1780,
Jonathan Carnes broke Europe’s spice monopoly by dealing directly with the East
Indies and bringing a shipload of pepper back to Salem, Massachusetts. From 1799 to 1846,
pepper, worth many millions of dollars, was brought to Salem by daring Yankee skippers who
founded America’s merchant marine.
Black pepper comes from the dried berry (called a peppercorn) of a
woody, climbing vine. Its scientific name is Piper nigrum L. There is no relation to the
pod peppers which give us sweet red and green peppers and the hot capsicum peppers
(chili).
When Columbus dropped anchor in the New World in search of spices,
he discovered chili peppers and made at least two mistakes we still live with. Thinking he
was in "India", he called native Americans "Indians". He also named
chilies "peppers", thinking they were related to black pepper, Piper Nigrum,
which they are not. The family of chili peppers is called "Capsicum".
In the pre-Columbian tribes of Panama, the Shaman (spiritual medium)
used Capsicum in combination with cacao and tobacco to enter into hallucinatory trances,
in order to travel to the heavens or to the underworld. Today, the Cuna Indians of Panama
burn capsicum so the irritating smoke will chase away evil spirits during a girl’s
puberty ceremony. They also trail a string of capsicum behind their canoes to discourage
sharks from attacking, thus providing the earliest insight into the possible use of
capsicum as a shark repellent.
In southern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula, capsicums have been
part of the human diet since about 7500 B.C. and thus their use predates the two great
central American civilizations, the Mayas and the Aztecs. From their original use as a
spice collected in the wild, capsicums gained importance after their domestication, and
were a significant food when the Olmec culture was developing around 1000 B.C. By the time
the Mayas reached the peak of their civilization in southern Mexico and the Yucatan
Peninsula, around A.D. 500, they had a highly developed system of agriculture. Perhaps as
many as thirty different varieties of Capsicum were cultivated.
The American wild chili peppers probably originated in present-day
Bolivia by means of birds dispersing the seeds, and eventually spread throughout Central
and South America. Chilies were a dominant part of early American diets. The
archaeological record at Tehuacan, Mexico southeast of Mexico City, shows that wild
peppers were eaten in Meso-America at least as far back as 7000 B.C., and were probably
domesticated by 2500 B.C. To the Incas, chili peppers were one of the four brothers of the
creation myth, Agar-Uchu or "Brother Chili Pepper".
Chilies were discovered when the Spanish explorers came to the
Caribbean. In the islands off the New World they found little red-colored vegetable pods
which the natives used in cooking and which imparted a sharp bite to food. Peter Martyr,
who came to America with Columbus in 1493, wrote, "There are innumerable kinds of Agi
(the Indian name for pod peppers), the variety whereof is known by their leaves and
flowers." Some were red, some yellow, some violet, some brown, some white. They were
of all shapes and sizes. The only aromatic plants Columbus found in the Western World
however, were capsicums: "plenty of Aji, (capsicum pepper), which is more valuable
than black pepper, and allspice or pimenta, a tree whose leaf had the finest smell of
cloves that I ever met with", thus wrote Dr. Diego Chanca of Columbus expedition.
The podded Capsicum family proved to be extremely adaptable when the
explorers sent seeds back to Europe. In an amazingly short time, the cultivation of
Capsicum pods spread to almost every part of the world. Moreover, in many places the pods
developed different characteristics with regard to shape, color, size and pungency.
The arrival of capsicum from the New World coincided with the
invasion of the Ottoman Turks and resulted in their spread throughout Central Europe. The
armies of Suleyman the Magnificent conquered Syria and Egypt in 1516-17, Yugoslavia in
1521, and Hungary in 1526. The year 1526 is the date usually given for the introduction of
the capsicum known as paprika into Hungary by the Turks. During this invasion a new crop
was introduced to the land of the Magyars. The Turks called it "Turkish Pepper",
the Hungarians called it paparka, a variation on the Bulgarian piperka, which in turn was
derived from the Latin piper, for pepper. The brilliant red powder we know as paprika
comes from the dried pods (fruit) of the plant species Capsicum annuum L. As such, it is
part of a botanical group that ranges from the sweet Bell peppers we eat as a vegetable to
the very hottest of chilies. The Hungarian scientist, Dr. Szent Gyorgyi, who won a Nobel
Prize in 1937 for his work on Vitamin C, found paprika pods to be one of the richest of
all sources of absorbic acid (Vitamin C).
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Pepper History
The following lists some of the important events in the history of pepper:
| 80 B.C. |
Alexandria, Egypt becomes the greatest spice trading port of
Eastern Mediterranean, with one of its entrances known as "Pepper Gate". |
| 410 A.D. |
Alaric the Visigoth demands 3000 pounds of peppers as ransom from
Rome and two years later extracts 300 pounds annual pepper tribute from the city. |
| 1494 |
Columbus' physician, Chanca, describes Mexican Capsicums. |
| 1498 |
Vasco de Gama reaches Calicut, India, the spice center; pepper
prices fall in Europe. |
| 1563 |
Garcia da Orta writes "Colloquies on Drugs and Simples of
India" the first scientific book on oriental spices published in the western world. |
| 1672 |
Elihu Yale reaches India and starts spice business which eventually
provides the fortune with which he founded Yale University. |
| 1797 |
Captain Jonathan Carnes of Salem, Massachusetts, returns from
Sumatra with first large pepper cargo and puts United States in world spice trade. |
| 1805 |
U.S. reaches peak of its Sumatra pepper trade; re-exports alone
totalled 7,000,000 pounds in one year. |
| 1835 |
English settlers in Texas originate chili powder as a convenient
way of making Mexican type dishes. |
| 1873 |
Piracy and native hostility finally end America's direct pepper
trade with Sumatra and the last of the 967 pepper voyages is completed. |
| 1910 |
California begins chili pepper production. |
| 1937 |
Professor Szent Gyorgyi wins Nobel Prize for research with paprika,
in which he discovers Vitamin C. |
| 1976 |
World trade in black pepper sets an all time high of 220 million
pounds. |
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Capsicums
Capsicums are any solanaceous (nightshade species) plant of the
genus capsicum, as C. frutescens, the common pepper of the garden occurring in many
varieties that range from mild to hot, having pungent seeds enclosed in a podded or
bell-shaped pericarp. The term "Capsicum" is a genus name encompassing twenty
species and some 300 different varieties of plants producing fleshy vegetable pods.
Botanically it is part of the family Solanaceae which also gives us tomatoes and tobacco.
The three most important species of Capsicums are Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens,
and Capsicum fastigiatum. In consumer terms the Capsicum family gives us paprika and chili
peppers.
Chili peppers come in many different shapes and sizes, though they
all belong to the genus Capsicum. There are small, round and red chiltepins, which grow
wild in Mexico and the Southwest and are harvested by millions each year for sale in the
U.S. market. Mirasol is a brilliantly red pepper that, instead of hanging from the plant,
grows straight up. Habaneros are green when unripe, and ripen to a bold orange or
red.
Anatomy and Chemical Characteristics of Capsicum
Capsicum consists of 38% pericarp, 2% inner
sheath, 56% seeds, and 4% stalks. The property that separates the
Capsicum family from other plant groups and the quintessence of
the chili pepper is an alkaloid called Capsaicin (kap-sa-i-sin),
an unusually powerful and pungent crystalline substance found in
no other plant. Capsaicin is the source of pungency and heat in
Capsicums.
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Capsaicin is a colorless, crystalline, bitter
compound present in capsicum [Previously referred to as capsicine].
It has a molecular weight of 305.46. Capsaicin has a Melting Point
of 65ºC, Boiling Point of 81ºC, Vapor Pressure of 40 and a Vapor
Density of 1.59 (Air=1). The range in capsaicin content in the pericarp
of an average capsicum is about 0.17% to 0.58% and the inner sheath
is 6.6% to 7.7%; color is concentrated mostly in the pericarp. Chili
seeds contain 19% oil with 0.024% capsaicin content. The percentage
of capsaicin in the capsicum plant depends on the species, geographical
origin and the climatic conditions.
Capsaicin is produced by glands at the juncture of the placenta and
the pod wall. The capsaicin spreads unevenly throughout the inside of the pod and is
concentrated mostly in the placental tissue. The seeds are not sources of heat, as
commonly believed. From one Kg. of cayenne pepper for example, approximately 2.13 g. of
crude capsaicin can be isolated, which is about 20 times the amount found in paprika.
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Different Type of Capsicum
The following is the list of Capsicum among 300 existing
varieties:
Aji (Capsicum baccatum):Aji is the general term for Capsicum in
South America. Archeological evidence from Peru indicates that Aji was cultivated as early
as 2500 B.C. There are three varieties of Aji; 1. Capsicum baccatum var. baccatum 2. var.
pendulum, and 3. var. microcarpum.
| Ancho-Poblano: |
The earliest Poblano forms were probably
cultivated in pre-Columbian times, and the present varieties are at least a century old,
attesting to their popularity in the cooking of Mexico. |
| Bell: |
The blocky pods of this type are shaped
like bells. The first mention of this capsicum occurred in 1681 when the English pirate
Lionel Wafer wrote of them growing in Panama. |
| Cayenne: |
This type was named after either the city
of Cayenne or the Cayenne River, both in French Guiana. |
| Cherry: |
The pods of this type resemble cherries.
It is mentioned in botanical literature as early as 1586 and was illustrated in Besler's
Celeberrimi Eystetensis, an herbal published in 1613. |
| de Arbol: |
The name means "tree-like".
Chili-de-Arbol was mentioned by Francisco Hernandez in 1615. |
| Exotics: |
The pods are usually variations on Piquin
or Cayenne. The Santaka and Hontaka varieties are very similar to types of Piquins with
elongate pods. |
| Habanero: |
Capsicum chinese. The word in Spanish
means from Havana. An intact fruit of a small domesticated Habanero was found in
Pre-ceramic levels in Guitarrero Cave in the Peruvian highlands and was dated to 6500 B.C. |
| Jalapeno: |
Named because of its association with the
Mexican city of Xalapa in Veracruz, where it was grown in ancient times. There are four
Mexican types: 1. Tipico, 2. Peludo, 3. Espinalteco, and 4. Morita. |
| Mirasol: |
It appears to be a Mexico native and
there are several varieties: 1. Cascabel, Guajillo, Loretto 74, and Real Mirasol. |
| New Mexican: |
Formerly called Anaheim. The predecessors
of the New Mexican varieties. |
| Ornamental: |
They are primarily used for ornamental
rather than culinary use, however they are edible. |
| Pasilla: |
It means little raisin in Spanish. |
| Piquin: |
The wild form of this capsicum, variously
called chiltepin and chiltecpin. The Piquins were part of the prehistoric migration of
Capsicum annuum from southern Brazil or Bolivia and north to Central America and Mexico.
Ethnobotanists believe that birds were responsible for the spread of most wild capsicums. |
| Rocoto: |
Capsicum pubescens. From the Andean
origin, the Rocoto was introduced into the mountainous regions of Chiapas and Michoacan,
Mexico, in the early part of the twentieth century. |
| Serrano: |
It was grown in the mountains of northern
Puebla and Hidalgo, Mexico. The longer Serranos, called Largo, are not as common as the
shorter varieties. In addition to Largo variety, there are; 1. Balin, 2. Tipico, 3.
Altamira, 4. Panuco, 5. Tampiqueno, and 6. Hidalgo. |
| Tabasco: |
The name is derived from the Mexican city
of Tabasco, which had extensive trade with New Orleans during the 1850's. |
| Hungarian Yellow Wax: |
This capsicum was developed from the
Banana pepper, which was introduced into the United States from Hungary in 1932. |
| Astrahan and Harkov: |
Ukrainian species |
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Oleoresin Extraction
The industrial spice Oleoresin extraction industry came into being with the development of
Oleoresin process during the 1930’s. The process essentially involves concentration
of the oleoresin from capsicum plant by evaporation of solvent and, finally
desolventisation to achieve the limits of residual solvent. Oleoresin, being a natural
product, is thermally sensitive and the processing must be designed to minimize thermal
degradation and preserve the full pungency. Conventional concentration and
desolventisation techniques employ batch evaporation. In this process the oleoresin gets
cooked over an extended length of time, which directly diminishes the Oleoresin quality.
Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) is therefore the extract of the dried ripe
fruits of Capsicums and contains a complex mixture of essential oils, waxes, colored
materials, and several capsaicinoids. It also contains resin acids and their esters,
terpenes, and oxidation or polymerization products of these terpenes. One kilogram of
Oleoresin Capsicum is equivalent to approximately 18 to 20 kilograms of good grade
well-ground capsicum. This ratio may vary depending on the type of capsicum being
processed.
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Capsaicinoids
The potent active ingredient, considered early as a single substance,
"Capsaicin" was soon shown to be a mixture of two unsaturated and three
saturated homologs. This mixture is now called Capsaicinoids. The pungent components of
Capsicum annum include at least 5 compounds, known as Capsaicinoids:
| Name |
Code |
Systematic
Name |
| Capsaicin |
C |
trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide |
| Dihydrocapsaicin |
DHC |
8-methyl-N-vanillyl-nonamide |
| Nordihydrocapsaicin |
NDHC |
7-methyl-N-vanillyl-octamide |
| Homodihydrocapsaicin |
HDHC |
9-methyl-N-vanillyl-decamide |
| Homocapsaicin |
HC |
trans-9-methyl-N-vanillyl-7-decenamide |
Capsaicinoids are produced by glands in the pepper’s placenta, which is the top of
the partition just below the stem. The placenta is about 16 times more pungent than the
flesh.
There are several other ingredients in Capsicum that directly
regulate the effectiveness of an OC formulation. One such ingredient is the pigment or the
"Carotinoid" also called "Capsanthin" with a molecular formula of
C40H56O3, and systematic name of
(3R,3’S,5’R)-3,3'-Dihydroxy-ß,k-caroten-6'-one. Capsanthin has a molecular
weight of 584.85
Capsaicin is available in synthetic or natural form. Law enforcement
agencies should be aware of synthetic analogs that are used in order to increase the heat
factor in Capsicum extracts, as well as synthetic or imitation Oleoresin Capsicums. Some
of the known related synthetic capsaicin analogs are:
| N-Vanillyl octanamide |
N-Vanillyl decanamide |
| N-Vanillyl nonanamide |
N-Vanillyl undecanamide |
| N-Vanillyl paaiperic acidamide |
Be aware of synthetic analogues (chemicals) such as n-vanillyl
octanamide used to increase the heat factor in Capsicum extracts to reduce production
costs. These compounds are acidic in nature and can cause serious health hazards and eye
damage.
Capsaicin produces inflammation of the mucous membranes. This is why
those coming into contact with CAP-STUN experience an immediate closing of the eyes,
difficulty in breathing and burning sensation of the skin called REMS.
This neurogenic inflamation is the key difference between
CAP-STUN’s effects and other chemical agents and tear-gases.
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Inflammation of Mucous Membranes
Natural Oleoresin extract of Capsicum contains Capsaicin which
causes the irritation of the trigeminal cells. These cells are pain receptors located in
the mouth, nose, stomach and the mucous membrane. They release Substance P (SP), a
chemical messenger that communicates any pain or skin inflammation to the brain.
SP is a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are inter-cellular
chemical messengers that are secreted by neurons (nerve cells) across specialized
structures (synapses) to transmit chemical information to one or more target cells.
Capsaicin as an irritant compound present in CAP-STUN induces
neurogenic inflammation upon local application. In recent years this agent has been used
extensively in research on primary sensory neurons because of its selective action on a
population of C-fibre afferent and possibly also on an A-delta fibre type. Capsaicin
stimulation of sensory nerves not only produces central transmission of sensory signals
but also releases SP from central and peripheral sensory nerve terminals.
Substance P (SP) belongs to the Tachykinin family, which represents
a group of biologically active peptides with a similar sequence of amino acids in the
C-terminal region. SP was the first peptide of the tachykinin family to be found in
mammals.
Substance P Arg-Pro-Lys-Pro-Gln-Gln-Phe-Phe-Gly-Leu-Met-NH2
The natural release of SP is therefore likely to represent a direct
action on postcapillary venules or smooth muscle cells. Both capsaicinoids and SP act as
Spasmogens on certain viscera containing smooth muscle causing contractions. Substance P
is one of the key causes of total incapacity effects causing contraction of the
oesophagus, trachea, respiratory track and iris muscles of the eyes.
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Testing the Hotness of
Pepper Sprays
1. Capsaicin is the actual ingredient within the OC that causes burning
sensation and inflammation of mucous membranes. The amount of Capsaicin in layman terms,
is the cause of the hotness of chili peppers.
To scientifically measure the amount of Capsaicin within OC sprays, HPLC method is used
to obtain exact and accurate data. (See the Official Analytical Methods of the American
Spice Trade Association (HPLC method 21.1). This test method provides an acceptable
international guidelines for testing the Capsaicin amount by the scientific community.
2. For example, United States Testing laboratory HPLC on CAPSTUN
product resulted in 0.92% Capsaicin for Z-305 model. With the HPLC method the users are
rest assured that exactly 0.92% of Capsaicin is contained in the canister regardless of
the formula or other ingredients.
3. Scoville Heat "SHU" Test method (See the American Spice
Trade Association Method 21.0.) dates back to 1930's and is replaced by the modern and machine
accurate HPLC method.
SHU testing is none other than "tongue" tasting of the spice by a
panel of 5 individuals. SHU therefore depends on the subjective taste experience
of the panel. The SHU test is not accurate since it depends on the
individual taste sensitivity which changes from person to person and does not measure the
actual chemical percentage within the product. SHU test is an appropriate test for the
food spice community, however it cannot serve the weapon technology, where an officer
depends on the OC's high performance.
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Method 21.0 Scoville Heat Test (SHU)
Purpose: To determine pungency in Capsicum spices and
oleoresins, via SHU "taste" analysis.
A. Apparatus:
- Erlenmeyer flask, narrow neck, 125 ml. with ground glass
stopper.
- Pipette, serological, 1 ml. capacity, 0.01 ml. graduations.
- Pipettes, volumetric transfer 2 ml. and 5 ml. capacity.
- Volumetric flasks, stoppered, 50 ml. capacity, 100 ml.
capacity.
- Funnel, analytical 58°, short stem.
- Filter paper, Whatman No. 1, 12.5 cm.
- Paper cups.
B. Reagents:
- Ethyl alcohol, 95%
- Sucrose solution, 5% sucrose in tap water (w/v) i.e. 50 g.
made up to a liter.
C. Preparation of Samples:
Ground capsicums and oleoresins should be used as is. Prepare unground capsicums as
directed in Method 1.0. Oleoresins should be mixed thoroughly before taking sample.
D. Procedure:
- Make an alcoholic extract of the sample based on
anticipated pungency. Ground Capsicum should be extracted for a minimum of 16 hours. Shake
occasionally. An Oleoresin sample can be dissolved and used immediately.
Decant or filter to get a clear extract.
- For the material to be tasted, dilute the quantity to 50 ml.
with 5% sucrose solution using pipettes and volumetric flask. In any given test start with
an amount of alcoholic extract considered to be too small so that negative response will
be obtained and increase the amount three out of five tasters report positive results.
Record individual response to each dilution. For selection of panelists see Note
1.
Before the first tasting and between each tasting have the individuals sip or rinse their
mouth with water at 90°-100°F.
- For tasting, 510.1 ml. aliquots of the solutions prepared as
indicated in step 3 are to be swallowed one at a time from small cups. The judgment as to
whether or not heat is present is to be made between 20 and 30 seconds after swallowing.
The minimum interval between tasting the solutions should be 5 minutes. (See
Note 2).
- Tasters are to continue through the sequences of solutions
until each reports a definite burn sensation. (See Note 3). Report the
heat units for the first solution for which three out of the five panelists report
positive.
Notes:
A panel of five reliable tasters is required.
- Potential panelists should be given several trials at
tasting a series of solutions which is known to contain the threshold heat response. A
Capsicum sample analyzed previously is suitable. The panelists' results for several days
can be compared for agreement and with results of experienced individuals. It is important
for potential panelists to learn their own threshold sensation to Capsicum heat. For
example, where the sensation occurs in their mouth. This experience may build sufficient
confidence in individuals for them to judge their own performance. Some individuals may
not qualify because of extremely poor repeatability. Others may not be capable of
utilizing their taste sensation. Finally the threshold level of Capsicum is not
necessarily the same for each person. Results of this procedure can be biased if panelists
are chosen for high or low sensitivity. A panel of five is not expected to indicate a
threshold reaction on the same dilution. In fact, the pattern of positive response may
include a range of dilutions.
- Experienced panelists who have respiratory infections, a
recent exposure to highly seasoned foods or medications may be incapable of a reliable
response. For this reason it is helpful to maintain experienced alternates.
- An experienced panel may be capable of good performance
without waiting 5 minutes between solutions. But allow 1.5 hours between panel sessions.
A great deal of time will be wasted if the panel is given solutions which are far too
dilute. Therefore, knowledge of approximate Scoville value is a great aid in presenting
the least number of solutions. In addition, the individual preparing the extract and
solutions can perform preliminary tasting. Although, this will eliminate them from
immediate participation as one of the five member panel.
Also see Testing
the Hotness of Pepper Sprays for more information.
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Method 21.1 High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Purpose: To determine pungency levels in capsicums and their
oleoresins.
A. Apparatus:
- High pressure liquid chromatograph, pump flow rate (0.6 to 1.8
ml/min).
- Detector
- UV at 280 nm, flow cell path (1 x 10 mm), greater
than 700 ppm capsaicin.
- Fluorescence at 288 excitation, 320 emission, flow cell path
of 10 x 1 micron, less than 700 ppm capsaicin.
- Column: C18, 10 micron spherical, 4.6 mm x250 mm.
- Rheodyne syringe loading sample injector with 20 microliter loop.
- 100 ml volumetric flask.
B. Reagents:
- Acetonitrile, HPLC grade.Dioxane, HPLC grade.HPLC grade water.HPLC grade methanol.2% perchloric acid.95% ethanol, saturated with sodium acetate.HPLC grade sodium acetate.
- Capsaicin. (Pharmaceutical quality).
C. Procedure:
- Weigh sample into 100 ml. volumetric flask:
- 10.00 g for pungencies from 0 to 1000 ASTA Heat Units1.00 g for pungencies from 1,000 to 10,000 ASTA Heat Units
- 0.10 g for pungencies greater than 10,000 ASTA Heat Units
Bring to 100 ml. with 95% ethanol saturated with sodium acetate.Cap and place on hot plate at 60 C or water bath for three hours, swirling occasionally.Swirl and allow solids to settle.Fill sample loop and elute with a mix* of: 48.4% methanol, 30.2% HPLC grade water, 13.3%
dioxane, 7.9% acetonitrile, 0.2% of 2% perchloric acid.The first peak is the pigment peak, the second peak is capsaicin, the third peak is
capsaicinoid.
- Prepare capsaicin standards at 0.01, 0.10, 1.0 mg./ml. (label 10, 100 and 1,000 ppm
capsaicin) in 95% ethanol, saturated with sodium acetate.
*For low pungency capsicums (less than 700 ppm capsaicin):
- Prepare solvent mixture A (5.4% acetonitrile, 3.6% dioxane, 0.7% perchloric acid, 90.3%
water) and B (9.0% acetonitrile, 18.0% dioxane, 73.0% methanol).
- Program gradient separation: At 0 min. (0% solvent B); at 2.5 min. (increase B from 0 to
60% in 5 min.); 7.5 to 12.5 min. (isocratic at 60%); 12.5 min. (60% to 100% B).
Calculation:
- Total capsaicin area=Area peak 2+.82 Area peak 3.
Capsaicin (ppm) = Total capsaicin area of sample x ppm standard x 100 / Total capsaicin
area of standard xg.
Sample ASTA Pungency=ppm capsaicin
- Pungency (Scoville) =ppm capsaicin x 15 (assume Capsaicin standard at 15,000,000
Scoville)
ppm capsaicin x 15 = Scoville units (assumes capsaicin = 15,000,000 Scoville)
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Pepper
Spray Concentration
Confusion abounds concerning the efficacy of various pepper (oleoresin capsicum
"OC") sprays because of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's labeling
system. Often a consumer of civilian OC defense spray will see "5%" or
"10%" pepper spray claims on a canister. Unfortunately, these percentages do not
correlate with efficacy because they only measure the percentage of OC relative to the
other ingredients in the canister. These other ingredients include the carrier for the OC,
a propellant, and often marking dyes or other chemicals. An over-the-counter "10%" spray contains 10% Oleoresin Capsicum relative to
the rest of the ingredients. What the OC concentration does not measure is the
concentration of the active ingredients (Capsaicin) in the OC formulation. OC concentration therefore, only represents the amount of OC (oily resin) in a canister
and not its strength. The heat or strength of OC is measured by the quantity of an active
ingredient called Capsaicin*. Therefore, the higher the Capsaicin amount, the
hotter the OC. * Capsaicin is the ingredient within the OC that causes inflammation of
mucous membranes. The reason some peppers are hotter than others is due to the amount of
capsaicin. Capsaicin percentage changes depending on the pepper species, geographical
origin and climatic growth conditions as well as upon oleoresin extraction and formulation
processes. For example an OC spray with 5.5% concentration can be 5 times hotter than one
with 10% OC concentration.
| BrandnameOC Concentration |
Capsaicin within OC |
| First Defense10% |
0.18%A |
| CAP-STUN5.5% |
0.92%B |
First Defense is a trademark of Defense Technology Corporation of
America
A As disclosed to California Department of Justice and printed
on the canister. Tested via HPLC method.
B As disclosed to California Dept. of Justice and independent
laboratory test results. Tested via HPLC method.
SHU Scoville Heat Units
Laboratory Testing for Heat of Capsicum Peppers
A misconception exists that the heat of a pepper spray is best demonstrated through
Scoville Heat Units (SHU). SHU testing is none other than "tongue" tasting of
the OC by a panel of 5 individuals. SHU therefore depends on the subjective taste
experience of the panel. The SHU test is not accurate since it depends on the individual
taste sensitivity which changes from person to person and does not measure the actual
chemical percentage within the product. SHU test is an appropriate test for the food spice
community, however it cannot serve as the standard for OC weaponry, where an officer
depends on the OC's consistent and reliable performance.Therefore, to scientifically measure the amount of Capsaicin within OC sprays, High
Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)* is used to obtain exact and accurate machine data.
HPLC provides an acceptable international guideline for testing the Capsaicin amount by
the scientific community.
* See the Official Analytical Methods of The American Spice Trade Association
(HPLC method 21.1).
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CAP-STUN HPLC Capsaicin Test
United States Testing Company, Inc.
291 Fairfield Ave. Fairfield, New Jersey 07004. U.S.A.
Client: Zarc International, Inc.
Product Tested: CAP-STUN Weapon Systems
U.S. TESTING COMPANY, INC. IS IN NO WAY AFFILIATED WITH ZARC
INTERNATIONAL, INC.
Date: October 1, 1992
File Number: 054130
Signed by: Joseph Kwiatkowski
Procedure: Analyzed in accordance with Official
Analytical Methods of the ASTA, third edition 1985, Pungency of Capsicums and their
Oleoresins, method 21.1.
REQUIRMENT: To identify the average Capsaicinoids
quantity of samples, via High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
RESULT: Test resulted in 0.92% Capsaicin and meets
and exceeds the standard.
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CAP-STUN HPLC Capsaicin Test
United States Testing Company, Inc.
291 Fairfield Ave. Fairfield, New Jersey 07004. U.S.A.
Client: Zarc International, Inc.
Product Tested: CAP-STUN Weapon Systems
U.S. TESTING COMPANY, INC. IS IN NO WAY AFFILIATED WITH ZARC
INTERNATIONAL, INC.
Date: October 1, 1992
File Number: 054130
Signed by: Joseph Kwiatkowski
Procedure: Analyzed in accordance with Official
Analytical Methods of the ASTA, third edition 1985, Pungency of Capsicums and their
Oleoresins, method 21.1.
REQUIRMENT: To identify the average Capsaicinoids
quantity of samples, via High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
RESULT: Test resulted in 0.92% Capsaicin and meets
and exceeds the standard.
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IACP Report
Oleoresin Capsicum
June, 1993
By Jami Onnen
Introduction
Recent increases in violent police encounters coupled with
court-imposed limitations on the use of deadly force have resulted in an almost universal
demand for a safe and effective less-than-lethal (LTL) force alternative. Increased civil
liability and injury-related costs have further necessitated the development of a viable
force option. Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) has generated sizable interest and has subsequently
become a popular LTL option for many law enforcement agencies. OC is a naturally occurring
agent found in cayenne peppers. Purportedly safe, effective, and relatively inexpensive,
OC may reduce the potential for excessive force complaints, civil litigation and
injury-related expenditures.
Despite extensive field application, few formal evaluative studies
of OC have been conducted. Moreover, there exists no forum in which relevant information
may be disseminated or policy concerns may be addressed. This paper unifies existing
information into a general review that law enforcement administrators may use to guide
policy decisions. Further, this paper examines specific concerns often voiced by the law
enforcement community regarding OC adoption and utilization. Such issues include product
safety and efficacy, agent selection, training protocols, and liability considerations.
Irritant Versus Inflammatory
Traditional chemical agents such as Chloroaceto- phenone (CN) and
Ortho/Chlorobenzal-Malononitrile (CS) have been used by law enforcement officers for many
years. These chemical irritants are tearing agents that rapidly induce profuse watering
and involuntary closing of the eyes upon application. While still considered effective for
tactical use, CS/CN have recently fallen into some disfavor for patrol officer use. Agent
side effects include possible burning and/or depigmentation of the exposed skin. Problems
associated with decontamination also exist. Due to the microparticulate nature of chemical
irritants, they tend to persist in exposed areas. Cross-contamination of officers and the
environment (e.g. patrol cars, booking areas, holding cells, etc.) is also common.
Chemical agents are not optimally effective on certain persons including those with a high
threshold for pain, those who are under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol, and those
who are mentally ill or extremely agitated. Acting on the central nervous system, chemical
irritants induce pain by activating receptor cells via neural transmitters within the
brain. Consequently, any interruption of this process (e.g. by drugs or endorphins) may
result in diminished registered pain levels.
Unlike traditional chemical irritants, OC is a naturally occurring
inflammatory agent. Also, the mechanism of action differs substantially: OC works by
inflammation whereas CN and CS work by irritation. An organic oily resin derived from the
pepper plant, OC is currently used for pharmacologic (e.g. as a topical analgesic) and
food spicing purposes. No special decontamination procedures are required for OC because
it is biodegradable and, unlike chemical irritants, it will not persist in clothing or
affected areas. Ensuring proper ventilation and access to water and removing any contact
lenses are the suggested decontamination procedures.
As an inflammatory agent, OC causes an almost immediate swelling of
the eyes and breathing passages. Additionally, there is an intense burning sensation of
the eyes, throat, and sprayed areas of the skin. When the agent is inhaled, the
respiratory tract is inflamed and breathing is restricted, being limited to short and
shallow breaths. Physical effects may include involuntary closing of the eyes, coughing
choking lack of upper body strength and coordination, and nausea. Psychological effects
such as disorientation and fear may also occur. When properly used, OC is purportedly
quite effective on both humans and animals. Furthermore, the cumulative physical and
psychological effects of OC render the agent serviceable for use on intoxicated or
agitated individuals (Nowicki, 25). DuVemay notes that the resultant effects of OC
application (i.e. labored and restricted breathing) do not support high levels of physical
activity such as fighting with police officers (DuVemay, 15).
Because of its effectiveness on animals, many postal and utility
workers carry the agent for animal control Domestic dogs of various breeds have been
successfully controlled, without injury to the animal by the application of the OC agent
(Public Safety Academy, 18). However, Nowicki notes that attack-trained dogs may not be
stopped by OC. In addition, sprayed dogs may become more aggressive upon recovery.
Standard decontamination procedures, including access to water and proper ventilation,
should be employed when OC is used on dogs (Nowicki, 25).
Legal and Medical Issues
Currently, OC is not regulated by the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental
Protection Agency, or the Consumer Product Safety Council. However, OC has been examined
by non-regulatory government and private research organizations. A two-year study
conducted by the FBI Firearms Training Unit in cooperation with the U.S. Army Chemical
Research and Development Center (CRDEC), revealed no long-term health risks associated
with the use of OC. The FBI reported that no side effects or adverse reactions were
experienced by 899 subjects who were exposed to OC agents (Weaver and Jett, 6). The CRDEC
further reported that neither mutagenic nor carcinogenic effects were found on laboratory
animals exposed to OC via gastrointestinal doses, subcutaneous injections, droplets to the
eyed and skin patch tests (Weaver and Jett, 2).
Regarding OC use on persons with pre-existing respiratory
conditions, Fuller, Dixon, and Barnes found no significant difference in either the
magnitude or duration of Bronchoconstriction between normal, smoking or asthmatic subjects
(Fuller, Dixon, and Barnes, 1080-1084). A private research facility, Occupational Health
Services, Inc., contracted by the Kansas City, Missouri, Police Department, reports that
the use of OC on persons with respiratory problems could, in rare instances, cause death.
However, they contend that such an occurrence is statistically improbable, noting that
none of the 899 FBI subjects (a percentage of whom probably had, like the general
population, pre-existing respiratory ailments) reported any adverse reactions (Bowers, 3).
Presently, there is no known Litigation resulting from the use of
OC. The FBI Firearms Training Unit reported that they are unaware of any lawsuits filed as
a result of OC application (Weaver and left, 2). Moreover, various courts have upheld the
use of traditional chemical irritants when properly utilized (Baltimore County, Maryland,
Police Department, 12). It may thus be logically inferred that any subsequent OC-related
Litigation will be similarly resolved.
Existing Assessments
Anecdotal reports of agent effectiveness are favorable. Officers from the Sarasota County,
Florida, Sheriff's Department (Hoffmeister, April 1992) and the Fairfax County, Virgins,
Police Department report immediate benefits upon completion of training (Sines, April
28,1993). Significant reductions in officer and arrested injuries have been reported.
After 360 documented uses, occurring over a two-and-a-half year period, the New Britain,
Connecticut, Police Department reports that OC was effective 95% of the time with no
injuries to officers or subjects (Nowicki, 25). Similarly, the Springfield, Missouri,
Police Department experienced a 30% decrease in subject injury complaints within one year
of OC adoption (Ijmes, April 28,1993). No official complaints have been lodged against the
Kansas City Missouri, Police Department after 409 documented OC uses (Mitchell October 1,
1992). The Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriffs Department Likewise notes that during the
first six months of OC field use, no complaints were filed (Hoffmeister, April 1992).
Regarding product effectiveness on inebriated/agitated persons, the Alaska State Troopers
report that OC agents received an "effective" rating nine out of ten times when
used on intoxicated individuals (Stockard, April 28,1993).
Product Selection
Once an administrator has decided to adopt OC as a force alternative, several product
selection choices must be made. Currently, a variety of vendors market OC products, which
differ on several dimensions. Chief J.P. Morgan of the Goldsboro, North Carolina, Police
Department notes that the main difference between the various OC products is the delivery
or carrier system, which may utilize either flammable or nonflammable carrier agents
(Morgan 22). Flammable delivery systems use isopropyl alcohol, which although not readily
combustible, is ignitable. Nonflammable carrier systems, using Freon, Dymel or methylene
chloride are also available. However, some of these are either ozone depleting toxic, or
carcinogenic (Pilant, 50). To address these concerns both water-based carrier systems and
environmentally friendly propellants such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide, are being more
commonly used. Other product considerations include price, range, trigger mechanism (mist,
fog or stream), concentration, and strength of the active pepper ingredient (Pilant, 50).
To decide which product is appropriate and serviceable, managers
must first determine in what types of incidents and in what manner the spray will be used.
For example, Chief Morgan determined that since the primary departmental use of OC would
be for routine patrol, rather than crowd dispersement, isopropyl alcohol would be an
acceptable carrier. Conversely, a nonflammable carrier was selected for rare,
tactical/SWAT-type incidents where saturation might be necessary (Morgan, 22).
Determination of product appropriateness should occur after a careful pre-use evaluation
including other municipal officials (e.g. fire and rescue personnel), attorneys and
departmental insurance carriers.
Operational Considerations
There is a consensus among law enforcement officers regarding the position of OC on the
use-of-force continuum. Because there are no verified long-term physical effects or health
risks associated with OC use, it is usually ranked just above hands-on pain compliance and
immediately below the use of impact weapons.
Standard operating procedures generally mandate that OC is
appropriate for use with actively hostile individuals who have resisted verbal commands,
when physical control techniques are warranted, or when officer injury is possible and/or
anticipated. However, current departmental policies concerning the application and
escalation of force should not be altered with the adoption of OC. Officers must be
provided with the discretion to quickly and safely apply the appropriate level of force to
meet situations involving arrest or officer self-defense. Policy guidelines regarding OC
use must be developed and clearly defined. At a minimum, guidelines should consider issues
related to the following appropriateness of agent use, necessity of warnings prior to
application, decontamination procedures, incident documentation, and possible sanctions
for indiscriminate use.
Thorough training in the use of OC is critical because it enhances
product effectiveness, protects the officer and the agency during litigation, and ensures
both officer and suspect safety. DuVernay holds that proper training should be
comprehensive, going beyond the technical aspects of the munition (such as the symptomatic
effects, first-aid and decontamination protocols). Legal and tactical issues must also be
examined. Tactical issues include application techniques, verbal commands, and proper
physical positioning. Product manufacturers and private companies offer user and
instructor training (DuVernay, 15).
Caveats should also be considered as part of the formal training.
Trainers (e.g., Nowicki, 27) report that because of OC's high level of effectiveness and
low potential for long lasting physical injury, a tactical over-reliance on the product
may occur. Some chiefs have been tempted to forego other less-than-lethal alternatives in
lieu of the "cop in a can" (Pilant, 51). A false sense of psychological security
may also be engendered by the product. Morgan reports that a patrol officer, in response
to an offer for backup, confidently commented that "I don't need one, I got my
OC" (Morgan, 26). Trainers and vendors emphasize that no device, including OC, is
universally effective. Consequently, OC should supplement rather than replace other
tactics and control techniques.
Conclusion
Reports indicate that use of OC may result in reduced use-of-force complaints, civil
litigation, and injury to officers and subjects. Furthermore, field tests suggest that the
agent is reasonably effective on dogs and intoxicated/agitated persons. Because of the
agent's natural product origin, various operational legal, and medical issues are
mitigated: agent application and decontamination protocols are basic; courts are expected
to uphold OC use; and the potential for permanent or long-lasting physical injury is
improbable. While not a panacea, OC is currently considered an effective and reliable
less-than-lethal force alternative.
Works Cited
Baltimore County, Maryland, Police Department. Oleoresin
Capsicum Spray Pepper Maw 1992
Bowers Sgt. H. Craig, Kansas City, Missouri Police
Department. Internal memorandum to Capt. Charles Rice. "Analysis and Testing of
CAP-STUN." February 15, 1991.
DuVernay, B. "When Compliance Is Needed: What Chemical
Agent To Spray and How To Spray It." Police February, 1993.
Fuller, RW., C.M. Dixon and P.J. Barnes.
"Bronchoconstrictor Response to Inhaled Capsicum in Humans." Journal of Applied
Physiology, 58 (4): 1080-1084.
Hoffemeister, Lt. G.K "CAP-STUN." Defensive Tactics
Newsletter. April 1992.1 (4).
Ijmes, Lt. Steve, Springfield, Missouri Police Department.
Telephone interview. April 28, 1993.
Morgan J.P. "Oleoresin Capsicum Police
Considerations." Police Chief. August, 1992 LIX (8).
Nowicki E "Oleoresin Capsicum: A Non-Lethal Force
Alternative." Law Enforcement Technology. January, 1993.
Pilant, Lois. "Spotlight on Non-Lethal Weapons."
Police Chief. May, 1993: LX (5).
Public Safety Academy, Fairfax County, Virginia Police
Department. Oleoresin Capsicum Chemical Agent Study. September, 1991.
Sines, Lt. Col. E. Thomas, Fairfax County, Virginia, Police
Department. Telephone interview. April 28, 1993.
Stockard Lt. C., Alaska State Troopers. Telephone Interview.
April 28, 1993.
Weaver, Wayne and Monty B. Jett. Oleoresin Capsicum Training
and Use Firearms Training Unit, FBI Academy. Quantico, Virginia. 1989.
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